Autoimmune diseases

Sjögren syndromea, systemic lupus erythematosus, rheumatoid arthritis, primary biliary cirrhosis

Drugs/toxins

Lithiuma, antibiotics (amphotericin Ba), chemotherapeutics (ifosfamide)

Tubulointerstitial disorders

Status post renal transplant, obstructive uropathy

Other

Nephrocalcinosis (hypercalciuria, vitamin D toxicity, hyperparathyroidism), sickle cell disease

a The more common causes.