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National Clinical Guideline Centre (UK). Pneumonia: Diagnosis and Management of Community- and Hospital-Acquired Pneumonia in Adults. London: National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (UK); 2014 Dec. PMID: 25520986.
Woodhead M, Blasi F, Ewig S, et al; Joint Taskforce of the European Respiratory Society and European Society for Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases. Guidelines for the management of adult lower respiratory tract infections--summary. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2011 Nov;17 Suppl 6:1-24. doi: 10.1111/j.1469-0691.2011.03602.x. PMID: 21951384.
Limper AH, Knox KS, Sarosi GA, et al; American Thoracic Society Fungal Working Group. An official American Thoracic Society statement: Treatment of fungal infections in adult pulmonary and critical care patients. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2011 Jan 1;183(1):96-128. doi: 10.1164/rccm.2008-740ST. PMID: 21193785.
Lim WS, Baudouin SV, George RC, et al; Pneumonia Guidelines Committee of the BTS Standards of Care Committee. BTS guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in adults: update 2009. Thorax. 2009 Oct;64 Suppl 3:iii1-55. doi: 10.1136/thx.2009.121434. PMID: 19783532.
Torres A, Ewig S, Lode H, Carlet J; European HAP working group. Defining, treating and preventing hospital acquired pneumonia: European perspective. Intensive Care Med. 2009 Jan;35(1):9-29. doi: 10.1007/s00134-008-1336-9. PMID: 18989656.
Mandell LA, Wunderink RG, Anzueto A, et al; Infectious Diseases Society of America; American Thoracic Society. Infectious Diseases Society of America/American Thoracic Society consensus guidelines on the management of community-acquired pneumonia in adults. Clin Infect Dis. 2007 Mar 1;44 Suppl 2:S27-72. PMID: 17278083.
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Definition and EtiologyTop
Influenza complicated by pneumonia rarely develops in otherwise healthy individuals. The risk is increased by chronic lung diseases (mainly chronic obstructive pulmonary disease), valvular heart disease, diabetes mellitus, nephrotic syndrome, immunosuppressive treatment, advanced age, and pregnancy. The same groups of patients are at high risk of infection with Streptococcus pneumoniae, which is a cause of pneumonia following initial infection with influenza.
DiagnosisTop
Diagnosis is based on clinical features (manifestations of pneumonia with concomitant rhinitis and myalgia) and onset during an influenza season. Chest radiographs reveal bilateral, symmetric, diffuse opacities. The diagnosis may be confirmed by isolating the virus from sputum, bronchial secretions, or a pharyngeal swab, or by immunologic studies.
TreatmentTop
Symptomatic treatment and antiviral drugs (see Influenza).
